rApps, xApps and dApps in the O-RAN and AI-RAN landscape

Abstract Open RAN intelligence is no longer a single-controller story. It is becoming a layered software system in which rApps operate in the Non-RT domain, xApps operate in the Near-RT domain, and dApps push logic into the CU/DU boundary when access to low-layer data and sub-10 ms reactions are required.